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Indian River Research and Education Center

Indian River Research and Education Center

Brazilian Peppertree

The biological control program for Brazilian peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolia) launched distributions of biological control agents, to control the state's most serious invasive plant. Four candidate biological control agents are currently under study at the UF/IFAS Norman C. Hayslip Biological Control Research and Containment Laboratory:

  1. Pseudophilothrips ichini (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae)
  2. Calophya latiforceps 
  3. Calophya terebinthifolii
  4. Calophya lutea (Hemiptera: Calophyidae)

Release permits for C. latiforceps and P. ichini were issued in June 2019. Host range testing of the other two agents is complete (manuscript in review). Biological studies for the remaining Calophya spp. will continue once healthy colonies are received from Brazil.

Invasive Plant Biological Control Program

Scientists have determined that the best way to control Brazilian peppertree is through biological control. This method eliminates the need for expensive, mechanical control, and toxic chemicals. Brazilian pepper thrips have already been released at parks and private ranches. Researchers have observed that the Brazilian pepper thrips have begun to impact Brazilian peppertrees.

workers attaching thrips to Brazilian pepper tree plants

images showing Brazilian pepper tree before and after being affected by thrips
Image (A) shows Brazilian peppertree before the introduction of thrips. Image (B) was taken after thrips were introduced. | Image: UF/IFAS Department of Entomology and Nematology

Resources

  • Frequently Asked Questions
    • When was Brazilian peppertree introduced to Florida?
      Brazilian peppertree was first introduced into Florida around 1840, and then again around 1890. It was not recognized as a problem in the state until the 1960s.

    • Why was Brazilian peppertree introduced into Florida?
      Brazilian peppertree was introduced as an ornamental because of its prolific production of red fruits during the winter. Other names for Brazilian peppertree are Christmas berry and Florida Holly. As with Brazilian peppertree, the majority of the invasive plants in Florida were introduced as ornamentals.

    • Where did Brazilian peppertree come from?
      The native range of Brazilian peppertree includes Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay. Two types of Brazilian peppertree were introduced into Florida: one from southeastern Brazil, and a second from the northern coastal area of Brazil. The two types of Brazilian peppertree are now extensively hybridized in the state.

    • Are any biological control agents available for Brazilian peppertree?
      Yes, the Brazilian pepper thrips has already been released at parks and at private ranches. The Brazilian pepper thrips have begun to impact Brazilian peppertrees.

    • What is the best way to control Brazilian peppertree?
      Biological control offers a natural solution with Brazilian peppertree's natural enemies from its native range. Biological control eliminates the need for expensive, mechanical control, and toxic chemicals.

    • Is Brazilian pepper tree harmful to people?
      Some people are quite allergic to Brazilian peppertree. It is in the same plant family as poison ivy and poison oak, and can cause severe skin irritation and breathing problems in some people.

    • How is Brazilian peppertree spread?
      When Brazilian peppertree was still sold as an ornamental, human transport was probably the major method that Brazilian peppertree spread throughout the state. Now that it is no longer sold as an ornamental, birds and small mammals are responsible for most dispersal.

    • Why do I only see fruit on some Brazilian peppertrees, but not others?
      Brazilian peppertree, like many other plants, is dioecious. This means that individual plants are either male or female. Only female trees produce fruits.

    • I’ve heard that birds can become intoxicated by feeding on Brazilian peppertree fruit. Is this true?
      This is difficult to determine, as there is no experimental evidence - only anecdotal observations. Like other plants, Brazilian peppertree fruit contains sugar that can ferment. Fermentation results in the production of alcohol. Thus, it's possible that if a bird ate large quantities of over-ripe Brazilian peppertree fruit, it could conceivably become intoxicated. However, this is not unique to Brazilian peppertree. Fermented fruit from other plants could also contain alcohol, and therefore potentially intoxicate birds and other wildlife. 
  • Facts
  • Current biological control releases for Brazilian peppertree

    Florida state map showing thrip releases by location

  • Release Events

    Dr. Carey Minteer distributes Brazilian pepper thrips at the first public event and news conference
    Dr. Carey Minteer distributes Brazilian pepper thrips at the first public event and news conference

    The following are events during which Brazilian pepper thrips were distributed. There was news coverage for these events. You can view the coverage by selecting the links. More Brazilian pepper thrips events will be scheduled soon.

  • Images
  • Publications
    • Bowers, K., Hight, S.D., Wheeler, G.S. and Minteer, C.R., 2022. Ecological host range of 
      Pseudophilothrips ichini (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae), a biological control agent of Brazilian 
      peppertree, Schinus terebinthifolia. Biological Control, 172, p.104976.

    • Carruthers, K., Cuda, J., Enloe, S., Le Falchier, E. and Minteer, C., 2023. Direct toxicity and 
      emigration: evaluation of herbicide interactions with a biological control agent for Brazilian 
      peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolia). BioControl, 68(5), pp.565-578.

    • Halbritter, D.A., Kariuki, E., Wheeler, G.S., Rayamajhi, M.B., Minteer, C. and Read, Q.D., 2024. 
      Changes in plant architecture in Brazilian peppertree damaged by the biological control agent, 
      Pseudophilothrips ichini (Hood)(Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae). Biological Control, 188, 
      p.105434.

    • Telmadarrehei, T., Kariuki, E.M., van Santen, E., Le Falchier, E.J. and Minteer, C.R., 2023. The 
      effects of soil type and moisture on the survival of Pseudophilothrips ichini (Hood). Biocontrol 
      Science and Technology, 33(4), pp.314-326.

    • Telmadarrehei, T., Romero-Weaver, A.L., Lee, Y. and Minteer, C.R., 2024. The first complete 
      mitogenome sequence of a biological control agent, Pseudophilothrips ichini 
      (Hood)(Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae). Florida Entomologist, 107(1), p.20240014.

    • Wheeler, G.S., Minteer, C.R., Rohrig, E., Steininger, S., Nestle, R., Halbritter, D., Leidi, J., 
      Rayamajhi, M. and Le Falchier, E., 2022. Release and persistence of the Brazilian peppertree 
      biological control agent Pseudophilothrips ichini (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) in Florida. 
      Florida Entomologist, 105(3), pp.225-230.

    • Wheeler, G.S., Minteer, C.R., Palacios, J., Halbritter, D.A. and David, A.S., 2024. Pruning 
      Brazilian peppertrees to augment field populations of the biological control agent 
      Pseudophilothrips ichini. Biological Control, p.105550.
    • Cuda, J.P., Enloe, S.F., Gioeli, K.T., Minteer, C.R.  and P. Prade (G). 2019. Brazilian peppertree integrated management guide 2019. https://bugwoodcloud.org/CDN/fleppc/publications/
      BrazillianPeppertree_Final_Oct19.pdf

    • Cuda, J.P., Prade, P. (G), and C.R. Minteer. 2017. Yellow Brazilian peppertree leaf-galler (suggested common name) Calophya latiforceps Burckhardt (Insecta: Hemiptera: Calophyidae: Calophyinae). UF/IFAS Electronic Data Information Source EENY-689. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/IN1186.

    • Gioeli, K., Enloe, S.F., Minteer, C.R. and K. Langeland. 2018. Brazilian peppertree control. SS-AGR-17/AA219. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/aa219

    • Minteer, C. 2008. Why Should I Care about Invasive Species? University of Georgia Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. Available online at www.gainvasives.org/whycare.

    • Prade, P. (G), Minteer, C.R., and J.P. Cuda. 2019. Brazilian peppertree in Florida, USA: research updates on potential biological control agents. In: H.L. Hinz et al. (Eds), Proceedings of the XV International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds, Engelberg, Switzerland, pp. 23. https://www.ibiocontrol.org/proceedings/.

    • Prade, P. (G), Minteer, C.R.  and J.P. Cuda. 2019. Brazilian peppertree thrips. UF/IFAS Electronic Data Information Source EENY-737 https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in1270

    • Prade, P., C. R. Minteer, S. A. Gezan, V. C. Arguijo, K. Bowers, J. P. Cuda, and W. A. Overholt. Host specificity and non-target longevity of Calophya lutea and Calophya terebinthifolii, two potential biological control agents of Brazilian peppertree in Florida, USA. BioControl 66: 281-294. DOI: 10.1007/s10526-020-10058-3.

    • Prade, P., Minteer, C.R., Salvador, A.G., Arguijo, V.C., Bowers, K., Cuda, J.P., Overholt, W.A.,  BioControl 2020. Host specifity and non-target longevity of Calophya lutea and Calophya terebinthifolii, two potential biological control agents of Brazilian peppertree in Florida, USA. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-020-10058-3
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Dr. Carey Minteer examining a Brazilian peppertree in the laboratory
Dr. Carey Minteer is Program Leader and Associate Professor of Entomology and Nematology at the UF/IFAS-IRREC Norman C. Hayslip Biological Control Research and Containment Laboratory - in Fort Pierce, Florida

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Resources